A Review of Plant Growth Substances: Their Forms, Structures, Synthesis and Functions
Keywords:
Phytohormone, Auxins, Cytokinins, Gibberellins, Ethylene, Abscisic acid, Plant Growth RegulatorsAbstract
Plant growth substances are compounds, either natural or synthetic that modifies or controls through physiological action, the growth and maturation of plants. If the compound is produced within the plant, it is called a plant hormone or phytohormone. In general, it is accepted that there are five major classes of plant hormones. They are Auxins (IAA), Cytokinins, Gibberellins, Ethylene and Abscisic Acid. However, there are still many plant growth substances that cannot be grouped under these classes, though they also perform similar functions, inhibiting or promoting plant growth. These substances include Brassinosteroids (Brassins), Salicylic Acid, Jasmonic Acid, Fusicoccin, Batasins, Strigolactones, Growth stimulants (e.g. Hymexazol and Pyripropanol), Defoliants (e.g. Calcium Cyanamide, Dimethipin). Researchers are still working on the biosynthetic pathways of some of these substances. Plant growth substances are very useful in agriculture in both low and high concentrations. They affect seed growth, time of flowering, the sex of flowers, senescence of leaves and fruits, leaf formation, stem growth, fruit development and ripening, plant longevity, and even plant death. Some synthetic regulators are also used as herbicides and pesticides. Therefore, attention should be paid to the production and synthesis of these substances so that they affect plants in a way that would favour yield.
Downloads
References
Akiyama, K., Matsuzaki, K. & Hayashi, H. (2005). Plant sesquiterpenes induce hyphal branching in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Nature, 435(7043): 824–827. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03608.
Akiyama, K. & Hayashi, H. (2006). Strigolactones: chemical signals for fungal symbionts and parasitic weeds in plant roots. Ann. Bot., 97(6): 925–931. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcl063.
Comai, L. & Kosuge, T. (1982). Cloning characterization of iaaM, a virulence determinant of Pseudomonas savastanoi. J. Bacteriol., 149(1): 40–46. https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.149.1.40-46.1982.
Delker, C., Stenzel, I., Hause, B., Miersch, O., Feussner, I. & Wasternack, C. (2006). Jasmonate biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana--enzymes, products, regulation. Plant Biol., 8(3): 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-923935.
Feurtado, J.A., Ambrose, S.J., Cutler, A.J., Ross, A.R., Abrams, S.R. & Kermode, A.R. (2004). Dormancy termination of western white pine (Pinus monticola Dougl. Ex D. Don) seeds is associated with changes in abscisic acid metabolism. Planta, 218(4): 630–639. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-003-1139-8.
Gomez-Roldan, V., Fermas, S., Brewer, P.B., Puech-Pagès, V., Dun, E.A., Pillot, J.P., Letisse, F., Matusova, R., Danoun, S., Portais, J.C., Bouwmeester, H., Bécard, G., Beveridge, C.A., Rameau, C. & Rochange, S.F. (2008). Strigolactone inhibition of shoot branching. Nature, 455 (7210): 189–194. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07271.
Pescarmona, G. (2009). Abscisic Acid. Phytochemicals. Retrieved June 4th, 2012 from https://flipper.diff.org/app/items/info/2127.
Glover, B.J., Torney, K., Wilkins, C.G. & Hanke, D.E. (2008). CYTOKININ INDEPENDENT-1 regulates levels of different forms of cytokinin in Arabidopsis and mediates response to nutrient stress. J. Plant Physiol., 165(3): 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2007.01.011.
Grennan, A.K. (2006). Gibberellin metabolism enzymes in rice. Plant Physiol., 141(2): 524–526. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.104.900192.
Kadiri, M., Mukhtar, F. & Agboola, D.A. (1997). Responses of some Nigerian vegetables of plant growth regulator treatments. Rev. Biol. Trop., 44-45: 23–28.
Lehmann, T., Hoffmann, M., Hentrich, M. & Pollmann, S. (2010). Indole-3-acetamide-dependent auxin biosynthesis: a widely distributed way of indole-3-acetic acid production? Eur. J. Cell Biol., 89(12): 895–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcb.2010.06.021.
Lin, H., Wang, R., Qian, Q., Yan, M., Meng, X., Fu, Z., Yan, C., Jiang, B., Su, Z., Li, J. & Wang, Y. (2009). DWARF27, an iron-containing protein required for the biosynthesis of strigolactones, regulates rice tiller bud outgrowth. Plant Cell, 21(5): 1512–1525. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.109.065987.
Li, L., Hou, X., Tsuge, T., Ding, M., Aoyama, T., Oka, A., Gu, H., Zhao, Y. & Qu, L.J. (2008). The possible action mechanisms of indole-3-acetic acid methyl ester in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell Rep., 27(3): 575–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-007-0458-9.
Li, L.C., Qin, G.J., Tsuge, T., Hou, X.H., Ding, M.Y., Aoyama, T., Oka, A., Chen, Z., Gu, H., Zhao, Y. & Qu, L.J. (2008). SPOROCYTELESS modulates YUCCA expression to regulate the development of lateral organs in Arabidopsis. New Phytol., 179(3): 751–764. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02514.x.
López-Ráez, J.A., Matusova, R., Cardoso, C., Jamil, M., Charnikhova, T., Kohlen, W., Ruyter-Spira, C., Verstappen, F. & Bouwmeester, H. (2009). Strigolactones: ecological significance and use as a target for parasitic plant control. Pest Manag. Sci., 65(5): 471–477. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1692.
Mauseth, J.D. (1991). Botany: an introduction to plant biology. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing. pp. 348-415.
McKeon, T.A., Fernández-Maculet, J.C. & Yang, S.F. (1995) Biosynthesis and Metabolism of Ethylene. In: Davies, P.J. (eds), Plant Hormones. Springer, Dordrecht. pp 118-139. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0473-9_6.
Missouri Botanical Garden (2003). Measuring Duckweed Growth. Retrieved from http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed-measuring-growth.htm.
Öpik, H., Rolfe, S.A. & Willis, A.J. (2005). The Physiology Of Flowering Plants. 4th edn., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Osborne, D.J. & McManus, M.T. (2005). Hormones, signals, and target cells in plant development. Cambridge university press, Cambridge.
Van Overbeek, J., Conklin, M.E. & Blakeslee, A.F. (1941). Factors in coconut milk essential for growth and development of very young Datura embryos. Science, 94(2441): 350–351. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.94.2441.350.
Parthier, B. (1991). Jasmonates, New Regulators of Plant Growth and Development: Many Facts and Few Hypotheses on their Actions. Bot. Acta, 104(6): 446–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1438-8677.1991.tb00257.x.
Pollmann, S., Düchting, P. & Weiler, E.W. (2009). Tryptophan-dependent indole-3-acetic acid biosynthesis by 'IAA-synthase' proceeds via indole-3-acetamide. Phytochemistry, 70(4): 523–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.01.021.
Ren, H., Gao, Z., Chen, L., Wei, K., Liu, J., Fan, Y., Davies, W.J., Jia, W. & Zhang, J. (2007). Dynamic analysis of ABA accumulation in relation to the rate of ABA catabolism in maize tissues under water deficit. J. Exp. Bot., 58(2): 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erl117.
Salisbury, F.B. & Ross, C.W. (1978). Plant Physiology. 2nd Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California, USA.
Salisbury, F.B. & Ross, C.W (1992). Plant Physiology. 4th Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California, USA. pp. 357-407, 531-548.
Solomon, E.P., Berg, L.R. and Martin D.W. (2011). Biology. 9th edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. pp 88-91.
Chiwocha, S., Dixon, K.W, Flematti, G.R., Ghisalberti, E.L., Merritt, D.J., Nelson, D.C., Riseborough, J.M., Smith, S.M. & Stevens, J.C. (2009). Karrikins: A new family of plant growth regulators in smoke. Plant Sci., 177(4): 252-256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.06.007.
Soeno, K., Goda, H., Ishii, T., Ogura, T., Tachikawa, T., Sasaki, E., Yoshida, S., Fujioka, S., Asami, T. & Shimada, Y. (2010). Auxin biosynthesis inhibitors, identified by a genomics-based approach, provide insights into auxin biosynthesis. Plant Cell Physiol., 51(4): 524–536. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcq032.
Sponsel, V.M. (1995). The biosynthesis and metabolism of gibberellins in higher plants. In: Davies, P.J. (ed.), Plant Hormones: Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 66–97.
Sugawara, S., Hishiyama, S., Jikumaru, Y., Hanada, A., Nishimura, T., Koshiba, T., Zhao, Y., Kamiya, Y. & Kasahara, H. (2009). Biochemical analyses of indole-3-acetaldoxime-dependent auxin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 106(13): 5430–5435. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811226106.
Tsai, F.Y., Lin, C.C. & Kao, C.H. (1997). A comparative study of the effects of abscisic acid and methyl jasmonate on seedling growth of rice. Plant Growth Regul., 21(1): 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005761804191.
Walz, A., Park, S., Slovin, J.P., Ludwig-Müller, J., Momonoki, Y.S. & Cohen, J.D. (2002). A gene encoding a protein modified by the phytohormone indoleacetic acid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99(3): 1718–1723. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.032450399.
Wang, Y., Liu, C., Li, K., Sun, F., Hu, H., Li, X., Zhao, Y., Han, C., Zhang, W., Duan, Y., Liu, M. & Li, X. (2007). Arabidopsis EIN2 modulates stress response through abscisic acid response pathway. Plant Mol. Biol., 64(6): 633–644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-007-9182-7.
Went, F.W. (1926). On growth accelerating substances in the coleoptile of Avena sativa . Proceedings Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, 30: 10-19.
Wood, A.J. & Roper, J. (2000). A Simple & Nondestructive Technique for Measuring Plant Growth & Development. Am. Biol. Teach., 62(3): 215-217. https://doi.org/10.2307/4450877.
Yan, J., Tsuichihara, N., Etoh, T. & Iwai, S. (2007). Reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide are involved in ABA inhibition of stomatal opening. Plant Cell Environ., 30(10): 1320–1325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01711.x.
Zavala, J.A., Patankar, A.G., Gase, K., Hui, D. & Baldwin, I.T. (2004). Manipulation of endogenous trypsin proteinase inhibitor production in Nicotiana attenuata demonstrates their function as antiherbivore defenses. Plant Physiol., 134(3): 1181–1190. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.103.035634.
Zhao, Y. (2010). Auxin biosynthesis and its role in plant development. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol., 61: 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112308.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2014 The author(s) retains the copyright of this article.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
